Memory and cognition flashcards

Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. AP Psychology students must understand the three-stage model (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory), as well as working memory as an active processing system. Key concepts include the difference between explicit and implicit memory, the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories, and how retrieval cues, context, and mood affect recall. Students should also understand why memory is reconstructive rather than a perfect recording, how schemas influence what we remember, and the major causes of forgetting such as interference, decay, and motivated forgetting. Connecting biological structures to memory functions and understanding phenomena like the serial position effect and flashbulb memories will be essential for exam success.

1. Card 1

   What are the three processes that define how memory works?

   Memory involves encoding (getting information in), storage (retaining it), and retrieval (getting it back out when needed).

2. Card 2

   What is the difference between short-term memory and working memory?

   Short-term memory holds about 7 items briefly, while working memory is an active system that manipulates and uses information for reasoning and comprehension.

3. Card 3

   What distinguishes explicit memory from implicit memory?

   Explicit memory is conscious recall of facts and events, while implicit memory operates without awareness, such as skills and conditioned responses.

4. Card 4

   What brain structure is most critical for forming new long-term memories?

   The hippocampus is essential for converting new information into long-term memories, especially explicit ones. Damage to it causes anterograde amnesia.

5. Card 5

   What is the serial position effect?

   The serial position effect is the tendency to recall items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

6. Card 6

   How does proactive interference differ from retroactive interference?

   Proactive interference is when old memories disrupt new learning; retroactive interference is when new learning disrupts recall of older memories.

7. Card 7

   What does it mean to say memory is reconstructive?

   Memory is reconstructive because we rebuild memories using stored fragments, expectations, and schemas, meaning recall can be altered or distorted over time.

8. Card 8

   What is a schema and how does it affect memory?

   A schema is a mental framework built from prior knowledge. It shapes encoding and retrieval, sometimes causing us to remember things that fit our expectations rather than what actually occurred.

9. Card 9

   What is the encoding specificity principle?

   The encoding specificity principle states that retrieval is best when the conditions at recall match those present during encoding, including context and internal state.

10. Card 10

    What is a flashbulb memory?

    A flashbulb memory is a vivid, detailed memory of the circumstances surrounding an emotionally significant or surprising event, though research shows it is not always accurate.

11. Card 11

    What is the difference between declarative and procedural memory?

    Declarative memory stores facts and events (explicit); procedural memory stores motor skills and habits (implicit), such as riding a bike or typing.

12. Card 12

    What is the misinformation effect?

    The misinformation effect occurs when exposure to misleading information after an event alters a person's memory of that event, as demonstrated in Elizabeth Loftus's research.

• Many students confuse proactive and retroactive interference by forgetting that proactive means old information interferes forward into new learning, while retroactive means new information works backward to disrupt old memories.
• Students often assume that flashbulb memories are perfectly accurate because they feel vivid and confident, but research shows they are just as susceptible to distortion as ordinary memories.
• A common error is treating short-term memory and working memory as identical concepts, when in fact working memory is a more active, multi-component system that goes beyond simply holding a limited number of items briefly.

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